From lab to life: Advances in tissue engineering and 3D bioprinting for regenerative female reproductive health

Introduction: Infertility affects millions of women worldwide, and despite current treatment options, definitive therapies remain limited. Emerging regenerative medicine strategies, particularly stem cell therapy and three- dimensional (3D) bioprinting, offer significant potential to repair and regenerate female reproductive tissues.
Methods: In this scoping review, 199 studies, including in vitro experiments, animal models, and early-stage clinical investigations, were analyzed to evaluate scientific advancements and translational potential in female reproductive tissue engineering. The focus was on stem cell sources, the development of bioinks, and the applications of 3D bioprinting to reconstruct the endometrium, ovary, cervix, and vagina.
Results: Stem cells derived from bone marrow, adipose tissue, and menstrual blood improved ovarian function and endometrial regeneration, with several animal studies reporting successful pregnancies. Concurrently, 3D bioprinting technologies enabled the creation of cell-laden scaffolds with promising potential for tissue reconstruction. Remaining challenges include the development of biocompatible bioinks, formation of functional vascular networks, and accurate recreation of extracellular matrix microenvironments. Most current approaches remain at the preclinical stage; however, the growing body of experimental evidence and early clinical investigations indicate promising translational potential and gradual progress toward future clinical application in female reproductive medicine.
Discussion/Conclusion: Although most advances remain at the preclinical stage, the integration of stem cell therapy and 3D bioprinting demonstrates increasing translational readiness and a clear pathway toward future clinical applications. This review highlights the current progress, existing barriers, and essential research directions for advancing regenerative strategies in female reproductive health.